Advanced Criminology

Anthropological research data has shown the violence is an inherent conduct among the primate species (Walker, 2001).   In society, criminal violence is a common occurrence and legislators have suggested that the behavior of criminals be analyzed in order to identify any psychological patterns that are consistent among these particular types of individuals.In the past few decades, neurobiologists have proposed that an individual’s condition, which encompasses empathy, morality and free will, is holistically influenced by the frequency of stimulation and assembly of the neurons of an individual.   Such notion is contradictory to the concept of Cartesian dualism, which states that the brain and the mind are two independent entities that coordinate with each other.To date, the accumulation of research reports from the field of neuroscience is gradually affecting the concepts and effectivity of the justice system because of the shifting in the concept of human behavior and res ponse to different stimuli.   Neuroscience has influenced our current understanding of the multiple factors that govern violent behavior among criminals.NATURE VERSUS NURTURE THEORY OF CRIMEThe theory of nature versus nurture pertains to the controversy on whether inherent qualities of a biological organism, which is depicted as â€Å"nature†, is related or influenced by the experiences, condition or situation of that particular species (â€Å"nurture†).   The concept the human being develop specific behavioral patterns based on their environment is termed tabula rasa or blank state.This notion is considered to be a major influence in the development of an individual.   These external settings of an individual play a major role in the psychology of an individual, including his anti-social, aggression and criminal behavior.It has thus been questioned for several decades whether criminals are born or could these particular individuals emerge after successive events in their lives that result in the transformation of a normal individual to a criminal.To date, there is much debate over the mechanism behind the entire concept of criminality.   Biologically or non-biologically influenced, criminality remains an elusive subject that still needs to be comprehensively analyzed.The 19th century classic report of Phineas Gage regarding the anti-social behavior that emerged after massive damage of the prefrontal cortex of his brain from a railroad accident is now considered as the birth of the field of forensic neurology (Harlow, 1848).Today, computerized imaging of his fractured skull has shown that the autonomic and social nerve systems are the specific damages that were affected, thus resulting in a totally different individual.   Such observation, together with research results gathered from war veterans, has led to the conclusion that violent criminal behavior is caused by injuries to the frontal lobe of the brain.  It has then been proposed that injury to the prefrontal cortex of the brain causes a condition that has been coined as acquired sociopathy or pseudopsychopath (Blair and Cipolotti, 2000).   It is interesting to know that there is an 11% reduction in the size of the grey matter of the prefrontal cortex among patients diagnosed with anti-social personality disorder (APD) (Raine et al., 2000).A related observation has also been observed between intelligence and alterations in the grey matter of the prefrontal cortex.The temporal lobe of the brain has also been determined to influence an individual’s emotional response and aggression, wherein lesions in the amygdale of the temporal lobe result in an individual’s failure to recognize fear and sadness among the faces of other people (van Elst et al., 2001).The connection between the decreased expression of the monoamine oxidase A enzyme and reactive violence has already been established (Caspi et al., 2002).Monoamine oxidase A is responsible for t he catabolism of monoamines such as serotonin (5-HT).   The working hypothesis currently accepted is that the prefrontal-amygdala connection is altered, resulting in a dysfunctional aggressive and violent behavior, resulting in criminality in particular individuals.Earnest A. Hooton (1887 – 1954) is a highly acclaimed physical anthropologist and evolutionist.   Much of his work focused on interindividual variations based on physiological and anatomical characteristics, including measurements of buttock-knee lengths as the main basis for constructing seats for the Pennsylvania railway trains.Hooton was also recognized for his concepts in primatology and comparative anatomy as basis for explaining differences in the human as well as primate species.He was successful in describing a primary race, of which can be further subdivided in several racial subtypes.   He is a proponent of the concept of eugenics, which involves genetic selection of traits that are deemed beneficia l to the current population.The field of eugenics has been an interest in the field of biology and medicine because it facilitates the creation of new haplotypes that may be positively selection in the course of evolution.Hooton’s work is also significant to our current scientific concept of crime because he persistently attempted to prove that criminal have biologically distinct characteristics from non-criminals.His anthropological work on physical differences based on a population of approximately 13,873 male prisoners from 10 different states across the United States.   His results strengthened his claim on the biological causes of violence and aggression and that his claimed that criminal behavior is a simple representation of an inferior type of human species that has degenerated.Unfortunately, Hooton was inadequate in integrating the concept of population genetics into his research because he haphazardly took 3,023 men from the general population to conduct a compara tive analysis of physical differences.   His measurement of foreheads, eyelids, ears, cheekbones, jaws, chins and shoulders resulted in a confusing supportive evidence for his claim.He explained in one of his published works that biology plays a major role in the development of individuals and society and that the environment is wrongly blamed for any failure that befalls an individual (Hooton, 1939).The research claim of Hooton had sparked more effort into determining the basis behind criminality.   Other researchers from different fields of specialization ridicules Hooton’s work, describing it as the comical attempt in defining criminal behavior.The general reaction to Hooton’s claim that criminals are biologically inferior was condemned.   Sociologists refused to accept the notion that physical unattractiveness is strongly correlated to criminal behavior.The advent of eugenics in combination with criminality has sparked interest in designed specialized techniq ues that may be applied to individuals that show physical and anatomical features that are consistently observed among criminals.An advocate of Hooton’s concept on the physical basis of criminality would assertively promote selective management of populations in order to eventually generate a prime standard of individuals in the next generation that is distinct from the features that Hooton described that are strongly correlated with criminality.   An advocate of the biological connection of criminality would employ the concept of eugenics in screening individuals that show a potential to show criminal and anti-social behavior.   To make things more complex, the features that Hooton described may also be used as criteria in admission to schools and workhouses.An extreme reaction would even results in construction of facilities that would enclose candidates or suspects for criminal behavior.   A biological discrimination would thus be observed and this unfair basis of sc reening individuals would create more chaos in society.Eugenics may also be translated as a screening tool in picking which criminals will be kept in prison and which individuals will be freed and this action will be mainly based on the biological features of whether the criminal may be rehabilitated or transformed into a normal non-aggressive person.The so-called degenerate individuals would be kept off the streets in order to prevent interaction with non-degenerate individuals, as well as to prevent future crimes in the community.   In addition, society would be introduced to the option of strictly selecting partners for marriage because they will be taught to pick partners that show obvious physical differences from the consensus physical features of criminals.THE GENERAL THEORY OF CRIMEThe self-control theory as proposed by Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) couples an argument regarding the driving force behind criminality and the features of a criminal act.   Gottfredson and H irschi contend that crime is similar to other out of control and unlawful actions such as alcoholism and smoking because it generates in an individual a temporary yet immediate feeling of gratification.This kind of action is created by a condition that is characterized by low self-control.   The authors claim that the condition of having poor self-control is an innate condition that is set in place during the early childhood at around 7 or 8 years of age.   In relation to the mechanism behind criminality, the authors explain that crime is a straightforward action to results in gratification in an individual.Such perception of crime is associated with a number of implications to the general theory of crime.   Firstly, the general theory of crime presents that crime is an uncomplicated action that does not need any strategic preparation or intricate knowledge.Secondly, the general theory of crime is related to a number of elements that are included in the theory of routine activ ities because just like other uncontrolled acts, crimes are not planned and it is easy for individuals with low self-esteem to be easily motivated to commit such acts.In addition, criminality is strongly influenced by external factors such as the scarcity of easy targets as well as the presence of associates that are capable of helping or even performing a criminal act.The theory of crime by Gottfredson and Hirschi regarding the early age of 7 or 8 also entails that the longitudinal analysis of crime is not necessary and that age-correlated theories of crime are confusing.The general theory of crime of Gottfredson and Hirschi also considers the fundamental argument regarding age and the unlawful act.   It is actually different from what is presented at general courses in criminology regarding the analysis of age-crime correlations and social factors that are related to crime.A distinction of the general theory of crime of Gottfredson and Hirschi is that the age-crime linkage is ve ry different through time, location and culture that the age-crime correlation is irrelevant of any social explanation.   Their general theory of crime also describes that criminals continue to perform unlawful acts of crime even during marriage and eventually end up as unmarried criminals.The same thing goes with offenders who are currently employed—these individuals generally continue on as offenders and the only difference after some time is that they lose their jobs.The general theory of crime of Gottfredson and Hirschi thus presents an argument against the connection of crime with marriage and employment thus showing that a criminal is incompetent in maintaining a relationship in a marriage or a commitment to work because he is commonly known as person of very low command of his control.Their presentation of the force behind criminality is thus focused on self-control and the authors point out that most investigations regarding criminality do not include this concept.à ‚  The authors explain that most of the concepts on crime describe the possible notions of the criminal.   Gottfredson and Hirschi thus provide a revolutionary concept of crime that describes that the nature of crime is actually simple because it easily connects the concept of individuals and their immediate environment.They proposed that most crimes are easily performed because there is no need for complex preparations.   In addition, a criminal act does not actually impart a lot of deleterious consequences.   They describe that crimes usually happen late at night or very early in the morning to any individual.   There is also no requirement for training or skills to perform a criminal act.The authors also explain the concept that crime does not pay because most criminal acts result in small to negligible benefits.   In the cases that do provide any benefits, the criminals tend to fail with the criminal act or they are highly exposed thus resulting in a lot of risks such as being caught and eventually put in jail.The general theory of crime of Gottfredson and Hirschi also present the conditions that make a situation conducive to crime.   They describe that routine activities play an important factor for a crime to happen because these provide the predictability of the movements and activities of the target individual.Criminals often study how their target victim goes around, comes home or leaves the house.   If the target individual has a routine schedule that is very predictable, the criminal will have a very easy way to know  Ã‚   the best time for him to invade the house of the target victim.The same factors also influence other criminal acts such as rape, wherein the target female victim may probably pass through the same route late at night and the criminal may pick a day at that particular time when not so much people at around and he can attack his victim at the particular time when the female victim is walking along the street late at night.   These settings of predictability of routine activities are actually very beneficial to the criminal and this outweighs the risks of performing the criminal act.Other theories of crime that do not consider these features of crime generally analyze other factors that are not consistent with the empirical information about crime (Walker, 2001).   The other theories actually claim the each crime has a different force that pushes the criminal to perform such unlawful act.In addition, other theories state that substantial knowledge and training are needed in order for a criminal to successfully perform a crime.   The general theory of crime of Gottfredson and Hirschi thus provides a simple yet comprehensible explanation of the force behind criminality.SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES OF CRIMEThere are several sociological theories in the field of criminology.   The Social Control Theory explains that the utilization of the socialization procedure and social learning results in self- control and decreases the chances that an individual will succumb to an anti-social type of behavior.This theory was strongly addressed by Travis Hirschi and it follows the Positivist, Neo-Classical and Right Realism schools of thought (Akers, 2000).   This theory resulted from the Functionalist concepts of crime and suggests that there are four modes of control.The first mode of control is direct, which pertains to imminent punishment based on unlawful action.   This mode of control is also associated with rewards in the case the compliance of the individual is observed.The second mode of control is indirect, which pertains to desistance in performing unlawful acts due to his conscience.   Another mode of control is internal, which is related to self-identification of delinquency and its associated pain and disappointment to the people around the individual.A fourth type of control is satisfaction, wherein an individual will not perform an evil act if he is content with his c urrent conditions.   Hence the Social Control Theory suggests that individuals will not perform any criminal act if their relationships, value and beliefs are intact.The Strain Theory of criminology explains that the society and its related levels and sublevels persuade individuals to perform criminal acts (Agnew, 1992).   This theory was proposed by Emile Durkheim and was further supported by Merton, Cohen and Messner and Rosenfeld.   It has been determined that strain may be of two levels.Structural strain pertains to the processes in society that influence an individual’s perception of his needs.   On the other hand, individual strain pertains to the hostility and suffering that an individual experiences during his search for things that will make him happy.   Hence the strain theories present the connection between structural and functional bases for criminal actions.The structural basis for criminality explains the processes behind actions, as well as finding a n event with a bigger concept of sites, distances and associations.   The functional basis for criminality explains how independent sections fit and result as a bigger system.   Hence all systems are influenced by sections that cooperate with each other and that any impediment that occurs in a particular section will result in a failure of the entire system.This means that either a replacement or a repair should be performed in order to make a system functional again.

Film Report Essay

Children of a lesser God is a love story about a speech teacher who falls for a beautiful yet distant deaf girl in a small New England school for the deaf, and the obstacles that they face due to their differences. William Hurt plays James Leeds, a renegade teacher with an unconventional approach to education and a resume that includes stints as a bartender and a disk jockey. Upon his arrival, he is warned by school administrator Dr. Franklin (Philip Bosco)not to get creative with his instruction. Naturally, Leeds already has his mind set on his teaching plan and proceeds to play loud rock music in class in order to teach the students to feel the vibrations of the music and get them to try to speak phonetically. But a new element enters his life when he meets the attractive custodian, Sarah Marlee martin. An exceptionally intelligent yet extremely bitter young woman, Sarah is a graduate of the school who has decided to remain there, in the confines of her world of silence; it’s safer for her to be with her own â€Å"people† than to face what she perceives as a cruel and uncaring world. She hardly seems interested in James and will only communicate with him through signing, although she can read lips and even speak a little. James learns from Sarah’s mother ( Piper Laurie) that Sarah was sexually molested as a teenager; this explains why she is so wary of his attempts to form a relationship with her and why she is so full of fear. Eventually, James does get through to Sarah and the two fall in love, although both have to learn new ways to communicate their feelings. Though it seldom resembles the Mark medoff play on which it was based, this directing debut from Randa Haines won an Best Actress Oscar for Matlin, for her first screen performance. In this movie a special education teacher named John goes to work at a school for the deaf. Throughout the movie John acts more as an Audiologist and tries to get all of the deaf students to start speaking. To help the students learn to speak John teaches them to count the beats of music using the feeling of vibrations. With the help of John almost every student learns to articulate at least some words. The relevance in communication disorder in this movie is speaking greatly improves the students’ social life and communication ability which improves the quality of their life. Giving them patience and chance to speak in their own language even their deaf.

What do you think the significance of the witches is in Macbeth?

The witches within Shakespeare’s ‘Macbeth’ can be interpreted as providing a number of roles within the play which add not only to the plot but also to the atmosphere and fear evoked within the audience. Within the Jacobean period in which ‘Macbeth’ was first performed, witches were the subject of much public hysteria and superstition, with the King’s own beliefs being based on a long history of Christian paranoia about witchcraft. As a result, the witches can be seen as a supernatural influence within the play, linking them to the devil and other dark forces and playing on the real and current fears of what may have been a dominantly Christian audience. In this respect, a modern Gothic reading can be applied to the novel. The supernatural power of the witches is one of the first elements highlighted within the play, as in Scene 3 Banquo states they can ‘look into the seeds of time/And say which grain will grow and which will not. Therefore, from the outset the witches are highlighted as the fortune-tellers within the story, who hold an otherworldly power to see into the future. This gives them a greater level of power than the surrounding humans, and such power in the wrong hands may have created a sense of unease and unpredictability within the audience. Additionally, it is this power to tell the fortune which creates the catalyst for the play and leads to Macbeth’s moral deterioration: ‘Al l hail, Macbeth! That shalt be King hereafter! ’ Thus, the witches can be seen to play the role of the typical villains through their manipulation of Macbeth, turning him from a ‘worthy gentleman’ into a brutal murderer. However, there is also contradictory argument that in reality, the witches do not hold any true superiority of power and that it is instead the planting of the idea in Macbeth’s mind which leads him to commit murder through the growth of his own ‘dark desires. This is exemplified further as Banquo suggests ‘oftentimes, to win us to our harm, The instruments of darkness tell us truths, Win us with honest trifles, to betray’s in deepest consequence. ’ Following this interpretations, the witches may be interpreted as having less power as they merely suggest an idea, and it is the desire and drive of the human mind which instead leads to Macbeth’s downfall. This interpretation may also be considered particularly frightening both to a Jacobean and a modern audience as it follows the modern Gothic stereotype of playing on the realistic fears of humans, such as the power of our deep and potentially repressed desires. Furthermore, the witches can also be seen to play a part in destabilising the typical gender roles of men and women within Jacobean society. Banquo states: ‘You should be women, And yet your beards forbid me to interpret that you are so. The ‘beards’ of the witches bring about confusion as to whether the witches are female or male, and deconstruct the opposition between both genders. This ambiguity leads to the witches failing to fall into either category, which further highlights the unnatural nature to them as they do not fit within the realms of human and social convention. Not only does this ambiguity create further unpredictability, but it also reflects the later attempts of Lady Macbeth to be rid of her femininity: ‘Come, you spirits, That end on mortal thoughts, unsex me here. The parallels between the witches and the actions of Lady Macbeth work to similarly convey her as increasingly monstrous, perhaps suggesting a criticism of the lack of social role and responsibility which leads to her own deterioration. Thus, our ability to categorize ourselves and others into gender roles and abide by the social expectations linked to these is seen as a distinctly human attribute and one which Shakespeare may have deemed important for the successful function of a patriarchal society. Lastly, the witches may also be considered significant in adding a grotesque nature to the play which further exemplifies their sinister nature: ‘Eye of newt and toe of frog, Wool of bat and tongue of dog. ’ The repeated references to mutilated body parts of animals within the witches chants further depicts their unnatural nature as they are interfering with the natural state of animals. Additionally, further reference to ‘Liver of blaspheming Jew†¦Nose of Turk, and Tartar’s lips’ highlights a taboo element as it plays on racial stereotypes and victimizes groups which contextually may be considered the ‘other’. Perhaps most significantly, however, is the additional parallels which run between the witches and Lady Macbeth, as they incorporate ‘finger of birth-strangled babe’ into their spell. This line instantly incites the previous recognition of Lady Macbeth’s own statement that she would have, whilst breast-feeding, removed a baby and ‘dashed the brains out. ’ A similar taboo element is highlighted through the suggestion of infanticide, as well as the idea of going against nature as breast-feeding is considered a tender and natural human act. Such clear similarity between the witches and Lady Macbeth can thus be seen to suggest an argument which underlies the whole plot of the play – who are really the ‘monstrous’ characters within the play; the witches or the humans? Such ambiguity and deconstruction of the opposition between supposed evil and good as an overarching theme of the novel is one which incites great fear into the plot and the audience, as it implies that, under specific circumstances, even the most moral of us can deteriorate into evil and sin.

PTSD 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

PTSD 2 - Essay Example tic criteria demands that the diagnosed symptoms last for more than a month and must cause a significant social or occupational impairment (Ursano, 2004). The causes of PTSD are believed to originate from experiences of any event that produce intense pessimistic feeling of helplessness, fear or horror to the victim. Some of the sources of such experiences may include: witnessing adult or childhood sexual or physical abuse, physical assault or sexual assault, occupations related to war and disaster, and being diagnosed with an illness that threatens life. PTSD may impact adversely on the victims. Some of its outcomes may include terror, fear, loss of memory among others (Acierno, 1999). Diagnosis criteria of PTSD as mentioned above demands that the diagnosed symptoms last for more than a month and must cause a significant social or occupational impairment. The diagnosis can be categorized into the following: exposure to a traumatic event involving risk of death or serious injury, loss of physical integrity and intense negative feeling of fear, helplessness or horror; persistent re-experiencing of the events resulting into flashback memories, subjective re-experiencing of the trauma, reappearance of distressing dreams, and intense negative physiological or psychological response to any subjective or objective reminder of the events; persistent emotional numbing and avoidance of stimuli that is associated with the traumatic event, inability to remember the main parts of the trauma, and avoidance of people or places that may bring back the distressing memories; persistent increase of arousal symptoms that were initially absent; symptoms lasting for more than one month ; and significant social or occupational impairment (Cahill, 2004). Prevention and intervention strategies of PTSD are needed in order to prevent the adverse effects of this condition to the victims. Experts have suggested cognitive behavioral therapy and critical incident stress management as

Leadership Communication..Q5 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Leadership Communication..Q5 - Essay Example We saw this especially with the BP oil sill in the Gulf of Mexico. Describe at least three pros and three cons of rationalizing. Propose a method to deal with the cons of rationalizing. 1. In organizations, rationalizing at the intra-organizational levels may help in understanding the dynamics and changes in leadership development through a continuous learning process. This sort of rationalization can be related to Gestalt psychology (Day and Zacarro, 2004) and can be used by higher management to study the new leaders among the managers. 2. In some situations, ethical practices may undermine an organization’s public image since such practices may leak information on internal problems. Rationalizing may be used to keep the appearance of the organization upbeat vis-à  -vis public relations practitioners and media. 2. The leader may indulge in tricky reasoning with the help of rationalization. This increases the risk of exploitation and exhaustion of the confused subordinates, which will eventually lead to decreased productivity. 3. Psychoanalytical aspects of rationalizing activities in business may give rise to contradiction between beliefs, thought processes, and attitudes within the management. This will create an â€Å"uncomfortable state of tension† (Smith and Mackie, 2007, p. 277-8). Since rationalizing involves a tactical use of lies, it cannot be ethically justified and hence it is quite a problematic behavior in the course of leadership development. Smith and Sharma (2002, p. 197) have stated that â€Å"organizations currently operate with a faà §ade of rationality, ignoring emotional reality.† Ethical practices and emotional intelligence must be encouraged to counter tendencies to avoid truth and create excessive workload from the perspective of the leader. In order to bring about responsible behavior on the part of the leaders (e.g. departmental bosses), the organization itself must behave in a socially responsible way. Day, D.V.

Business Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 8

Business Ethics - Essay Example As such, it becomes necessary to monitor their activities in order to ensure that profit is maximized through production. This essay is a critical evaluation of the human resource management from the perspective that it might be an unethical process. Managing people in a business is important since it ensures that processes and activities are harmonized in order to increase and maintain the standard of business performance based on the fact that businesses rely on their human resources to achieve the set goals and strategies by providing labor and the necessary expertise (Pareek, 2000). Human beings unlike machines have their weaknesses which at times make them commit careless mistakes especially when they are not being monitored. From observation, employees can be categorized into two groups which include those who are capable of conducting their duties without being monitored or managed and those who cannot perform unless there is a manager around to supervise them. In this case, human resource management becomes an important department in a business organization which is entrusted with the responsibility of ensuring that employees discharge their duties according to their job descriptions. Managers also have the responsibility of ensuring that business ethics are upheld in all areas of their administration. Upholding of ethics ensures that there is a cohesive environment for conducting business, which is meant to minimize conflicts between the management and the employees as well as customers who are a valuable asset to the business. Business ethics refers to the moral standards that should be maintained within the organization whether on the part of the management or the employees. Managers are supposed to lead as an example to their juniors especially when discharging their duties and responsibilities (DesJardins, 2008). The powers and trust vested in them by their bosses should be used accordingly to serve the interests of the

Measures To Put Under Control the Cases Performance Deficiency among Assignment - 1

Measures To Put Under Control the Cases Performance Deficiency among Employees - Assignment Example It is evidently clear from the discussion that the leader should avoid being biased about the situation. He should make his conclusions about what led to the action. He should, rather be willing to listen to the person, and have a clear understanding of the cause of his inadequate performance. This helps to show the individual that he has a chance to be heard, without being judged. Providing the corrective feedback promptly, within the time the problem is noticed is necessary. This is because it will help guide the employee in performing his activities, and avoid a recurrence. According to Yukl, when an employee demonstrates inadequate performance, it is necessary for the leader to explain to the person the effects of his behavior. He makes the person understand that his behavior has a significant effect, not only to the company but also to his coworkers. When facing an incident of inadequate performance, the leader should stay calm, and exhibit professionalism. This means that he sh ould avoid accusations or insults to the person. By doing this, the employee understands the magnitude of his actions and works to improve his performance. To be a quality follower who is indispensable, it is necessary to have a clear knowledge and understanding of what the company requires you to do. According to Yukl, by understanding your roles and how they should be performed, you can deliver positive results that will impress the leader. This helps to ensure that work is completed as per the leader’s expectation. If the role is not clear, the person should request for clarification, and this will help improve the performance of the individual. When performing duties for a company, one should ensure constant communication with the leader is maintained. The leader should be updated on every activity that takes place. Regular communication allows for the leader to know how the person is conducting his activities and correct him if need be. This helps in the growth of an org anization. Feedback is important in the day to day performance of roles in a company.

Love Health Services Administration by Strayer Term Paper

Love Health Services Administration by Strayer - Term Paper Example Medical school enrolments contribute to available nurses as well as the barriers in the field which influences the supply. Distribution of doctors and demand- the increase in the numbers of the aged that require attention necessitates an increase in demand of the physician in the related areas. As a result, shortages escalate leading to patient load among the available physicians due to demand for medical care. The uneven distribution of physicians also accounts for the shortages. Many rural areas are underserved by the services offered by doctors who do not partake in rural life or are aware of the financial crisis in these areas. The doctors on the other hand concentrate much on improving their social life and participate less in practice which affects the demand for their services. The physicians also choose the more lucrative and well-paying fields in specialization than those that accord low pay thus affecting their distribution in the field as well as in the hospitals (Cassels & Janovsky, 2001). Poor working environment-low payment combined with long working hours has led to fewer interests by scholars to pursue the course. Some claim that it offers less prestige and less family time as well as more administrative headaches. Physicians experience bad conditions at work, poor remuneration, low incentives and external influence in their course of work which increases the change from public to private managed hospitals (Afo, Thomason & Karel, 2006). Shortages in faculties and infrastructure- the number of qualified applicants for the nursing courses has reduced tremendously due to lack of faculties. Besides, survey conducted reveals that almost two thirds of the nursing schools lack the necessary classrooms space, clinical sites, budget constraints, clinical preceptors and number of faculties. Findings reveal that the total number of faculties available combined with the allocated positions fall short of

Week #7 Learning Activities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Week #7 Learning Activities - Essay Example Sex† should not only be about the biological differences between male and female because of instances where such differences are not clearly determined. An example would be people who have Gender Identity Disorder, where people feel â€Å"a disjunction between ones sexual organs and sexual identity† (Bible 3) and people who are born with two or no sex organs, so they are free to choose between the two. With the existence of vague sexual identity because of biology, the law must consider gender identity and sexual orientation as part of â€Å"sex† too. Gender is based on the belief that sex is socially produced. Gender identity, in addition, even sexual orientation, can also be seen as a process for people who are undergoing sex changes or experiencing sexual identity confusion. If people are unsure of their gender or sex, then they must be free to determine it, or even be free to have an open gender, if that is acceptable to them. Society, in turn, should not limit their rights and freedoms, simply because their gender identity is floating or more fluid than the fixed notions of masculinity and femininity (which should not be fixed at all). Finally, â€Å"sex† should also be a decision for one’s gender identity outcomes. As in the case of Eastern Airline pilot, Ulane should not be discharged because of changes in her gender identity. She deserves to work and to be respected and accepted by society like others, whatever her gender identity is. Nonetheless, since such an open interpretation of â€Å"sex† is not yet socially or legally accepted and applied, I believe that Ulane can still use same-sex discrimination as a basis for her claims, like what happened to Smith V. City of Salem. Ulane can claim sexual discrimination for not fitting into gender stereotypes, where she can argue that she experienced sexual discrimination, since only male pilots are more accepted in Eastern than female pilots, and where, by being transsexual, he is discriminated because he is

The Ethical Significance of Consumerism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Ethical Significance of Consumerism - Essay Example This research will begin with the definition of consumerism as a negative phenomenon because it involves the purchase of various items and products in very large quantities. Consumerism is often understood as a kind of manic enthusiasm for shopping. This concern is amplified by the fact that â€Å"consumerism appears to be becoming increasingly global in its influence†. Despite the opinion that consumerism is a negative phenomenon (it increases man's dependence on the service sector making him/her earn more), one can point out several arguments in favor of the idea that in ethical terms, consumerism is good. Firstly, one should remember that consumerism is able to bring psychological satisfaction for a shopaholic, making his/her inner condition calm and balanced. In addition, consumerism may be presented in the form of ethical consumerism. Finally, participating in the economic development of the region, consumerism helps to create more favorable conditions of life for many pe ople. Consumerism has ethical significance in the sense that it can help to stabilize relations between people. There are people who need to perform actions that can bring them pleasure and at the same time contribute to the stabilization of their psychological state. As a result, a shopaholic relieves his/her psychological tension and stress and can continue communicating with his/her friends and family in a peaceful state of mind. In addition, consumerism can be presented in the form of ethical consumerism.

Future Developments of Video Games Essay Example for Free

Future Developments of Video Games Essay The field of video games is one of the most exciting because it is constantly developing and advancing so quickly. Unlike a lot of areas of ICT which have reached a level of stability, all parts of games, gaming and games development are still growing and will continue to grow. This means there is the potential for individuals to have completely new ideas and be the first to create something in the field. The popularity of games is growing exponentially, with more and more people discovering an interest and passion for games all the time. A game now will reach a much larger, international audience and games developers can bring enjoyment to a vast array of people. Console manufacturers, games developers and other involved in the game industry and notoriously secretive about new projects being developed until they are almost ready for announcement and release and even then sometimes games and products can be cancelled at the last minute. All employees working in the industry have to sign a non-disclosure agreement (NDA) most of the time which forbids them legally from revealing any of their companys secrets. Releasing any information about a product could potentially jeopardise its sales. Technology evolves in amazingly rapid speeds. If you need any real observable proof of the speedy advancement of digital technology over the years, take a look at the gaming industry. From the very early years of black-and-white 2D games like Pong (1972) to the first 3D game, 3D Monster Maze in 1981, and from primitive first-person shooters like Wolfenstein 3D (1992) to complex, life-like shooters like Battlefield 3 (2011), there’s no doubt that the gaming industry has seen its fair share of technological evolution. Hardware Developments Each new generation of console hardware made use of the rapid development of processing technology. Newer machines could output a greater range of colours, more sprites, and introduced graphical technologies such as scaling, and vector graphics. One way console makers marketed these advances to consumers was through the measurement of bits. The TurboGrafx-16, Sega Genesis, and SNES were among the first consoles to advertise the fact that they contained 16-bit processors. This fourth generation of console hardware was often referred to as the 16-bit era, and the previous generation as the 8-bit. The bit-value of a console referred to the word length of a consoles processor (although the value was sometimes misused, for example the TurboGrafx 16 had only an 8-bit CPU, and the Genesis/Mega Drive had the 16/32-bit Motorola 68000, but both had a 16-bit dedicated graphics processor). As the graphical performance of console hardware is dependent on many factors, using bits was a crude way to gauge a consoles overall ability. For example the NES, Commodore 64, Apple II, and Atari 2600 all used a very similar 8-bit cpu. The difference in their processing power is due to other causes. For example the Commodore 64 contains 64 kilobytes of RAM and the Atari has much less at 128 bytes of RAM. The jump from 8 bit machines to 16 bit machines to 32 bit machines made a noticeable difference in performance, so consoles from certain generations are frequently referred to as 8 bit or 16 bit consoles. However, the bits in a console are no longer a major factor in their performance. The Nintendo 64, for example has been outpaced by several 32 bit machines. Its only inevitable that gaming hardware is going to constantly be improved, with more processing power, graphics capabilities, sound quality and memory capacity. The input method using a controller has drastically developed over the years beginning with a clunky controller and simple joystick on arcade games, the video game controller has evolved to be ergonomically designed to feel comfortable to avoid injuries such as the ones in the repetitive strain injury group or carpal tunnel syndrome. Most modern controllers are designed with the relaxed position of the hands in mind, resulting in the pronged design that reduces soreness and cramps after extended use, compared to older pads such as the NES or the Sega Master System. There are still a vast array of input methods to create an even more immersive experience, these include: steering wheel, pedals, light guns, dance pads, balance board, fishing rod, microphone and rhythm game controllers (drums and guitars). Many of these have been specifically designed to be used for a certain game or gaming series, such as guitar hero for example. The evolution of the controller to include more buttons p roves that video games themselves are advancing as more buttons are required to complete different tasks within the game. New input methods are being developed to make the gaming experience more enjoyable and interactive, such as being able to control the character by body movement with sensor pads or clothing such as gloves. This type of input method can be seen back in the EyeToy for Playstation 2 which used a video camera. Most recently this market had been taken by storm with the introduction of the Wii and its totally unique controls. Many console manufactures have adopted this technique can be seen in the Playstation Move and the Xbox Kinect which both involve the player as a means of controlling the game instead of pressing buttons. This means of input is being pushed forward by many of the console manufacturers as it removes the stigma of video games being only for people who sit down all day and are lazy, and they are also seen as an alternative to exercising. The gaming industry has helped develop graphics and sound technology that can be incorporated as VR (Virtual Reality). An early 1990s attempt at a headset for console gaming and for hobbyists, was made by Future Vision Technologies. A modern example would be the Wii where the controller tracks and sends motion input accurately. There is also a new VR headset system in development designed specifically for gaming called the Oculus Rift. The headset provides approximately a 110 degree field of view, absolute head orientation tracking, USB interface and a 1200800 resolution with the final consumer version aimed at 19201080. Some of the future games that will support the Oculus Rift includes Doom 4, Strike Suit Zero, Team Fortress 2, Miner Wars 2081, Minecraft and many more. Virtual reality has always been something that was portrayed in movies and television shows as something that will be the future of gaming. Attempts at creating it in the past have not shown popular results. However, it is something which is becoming more of a reality as technology advances, although whether we will ever reach the point of it becoming the standard of gaming is yet to be seen. Software Development The aim of software development is usually to reach a new level of realism or immersion. As processing power and memory increase, enhanced art and animation are able to be created. This allows images and movement to be more realistic. In the early days of first-person shooters, non-player characters (NPCs) had the intelligence of nicely rounded rocks. But theyve been getting much better lately look no further than Half-Lifes storytelling NPCs and Unreal Tournaments excellent bot AI. The market success of titles such as these has prompted developers to put more effort into AI, so it looks as if smarter NPCs will continue to show up in games. AI researchers rarely use computer games for their research, outside of classic board and card games such as chess, checkers, and bridge. Possibly they see most game AI problems as simple engineering problems. This view has not been completely unjustified because often the goal of game AI is not to create intelligence, but to improve gameplay through the illusion of intelligent behaviour. Many of the techniques used to improve the illusion of intelligence have nothing to do with intelligence, but involve cheats, such as giving game AIs extra production capability or the ability to see through walls, or faking it by creating bots that talk to each other but completely ignore what is said. There also has been a drift in AI research toward problems and approaches where precise empirical evaluation is possible. Needless to say, gameplay isnt something that todays AI researchers feel comfortable evaluating. Although there is currently a significant gap between game developers and AI researchers, that gap is starting to close. The inevitable march of Moores law is starting to free up significant processing power for AI, especially with the advent of graphics cards that move the graphics processing off the CPU. The added CPU power will make more complex game AI possible. Still, game developers should still be wary of AI researchers who say, My algorithm doesnt run in real time right now, but just wait. In a few more years, Im sure the processing power will be there. A second, equally powerful force that is closing the gap is sociological. Students who grew up loving computer games are getting advanced degrees in AI. This has the dual effect of bringing game research to universities and university research to game companies already there are at least five AI Ph.D.s at game companies. AI researchers are discovering that building interesting synthetic characters in computer games is much more than just an engineering problem. Moreover, games provide cheap, robust, immersive environments for pursuing many of the core AI issues. They could be the catalyst for a rebirth in research on human-level AI The final force is the game-playing public, who are starting to demand better AI. With the saturation in the quality of computer graphics, better physics and AI are the two technologies that have the most potential to improve gameplay. Players are looking for more realistic AIs to populate their worlds with interesting non-player characters (as in The Sims) and humanlike opponents who must be out-thought and not just out-shot (and who dont cheat). AI can also provide dynamic game control, adjusting the gameplay based on how the game is played. Imagine playing a first-person shooter where the AI not only reacts to your behaviour, but also anticipates your actions by using an internal model of the way you play the game to make its plan. It also adjusts its skill at the tactical level to match yours, so that the game is never a blowout for either side. What can computer game developers do to hasten the collaboration of developers and AI researchers? The most important thing is to make commercial computer game interfaces available to AI researchers. Developers of games such as Unreal, Quake, and Half-Life publish DLLs, making it possible for not only hobbyists but also AI researchers to build bots that play games. If developers from other genres such as real-time strategy games follow suit, you would see an explosion of research on AI for these games. Game developers can also join AI researchers in discussing AI problems and solutions in open forums. There is now a yearly symposium sponsored by the American Association for Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) on AI and interactive entertainment that brings together game developers and AI researchers. Building good AIs is hard and difficult work. Automated learning approaches such as neural nets and genetic algorithms can tune a well-defined set of behavioural parameters, but they are grossly inadequate when it comes to creating synthetic characters with complex behaviours automatically from scratch. There is no magic in AI, except for the magic that emerges when a great programmer works very hard. With the development of artificial intelligence, NPC characters are becoming cleverer. It is predicted that this AI will continue to offer more and more realistic opponents who can think almost like a human. New Technologies It is becoming more popular to connect the Xbox 360 to a Windows PC, which is easily possible as both are Microsoft products. XNA is a set of tolls which allowed games to be built for Xbox and tested through this connectivity. Where hobbyists had been frowned upon by consol manufacturers in the past, Microsoft are positively encouraging homebrew gaming. They run competitions to find newly developed XNA games and release them on Xbox Live Arcade. This is not only evidence of the future of homebrew games and hobbyist being accepted, but it also signals the integration of console with other media equipment with the seventh generation being best known for major consoles branching out into other types of media rather than solely focusing on games. All three consoles offer basic abilities such as photo-viewing, listening to music and browsing the web, as well as the ability to connect to external memory such as USB flash drives and SD cards. The Xbox 360s DVD player was plagued by quality issues but other media options became available later such as an external HD-DVD drive (now a dead standard), Zune downloadable content, Netflix streaming and Last.fm internet radio. PlayStation 3, on the other hand, offered HD movie playback out of the box via Blu-ray in addition to later services like Netflix streaming, and Qriocity music. This new generation for the first time has all of the major consoles focusing on online integration. All three have their own connection services: Wiis Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection, Xbox Live, and PlayStation Network. Competition has branched now from simply offering the best games to the best online content; smaller games can now be purchased and downloaded from online stores within the consoles, and extra applications such as Netflix streaming and Facebook connectivity are heavily supported. Almost all games sold in retail have online support, including online multiplayer and downloadable content for bug patches and new features, potentially increasing replay value in certain games for even years. Another notable feature in current-gen gaming is the use of avatar characters. Nintendo first introduced Miis with the Wii console, caricatures of players that could be created and used in flagship titles such as Wii Sports; however they lack the ability to customize that Xboxs avatars have, as clothes and accessories can be purchased online or unlocked in games played. PlayStation 3, instead of an in-game character, offers PlayStation Home, a social simulator where avatars can talk and explore, and customize their homes with elements from games played. This basic idea allows the person playing the games to have a more personalised feel to their console and that they have become truly integrated with it. The console is becoming a central element that is integrated into a whole media system. People may become to get rid of their stereos and DVD players as this one central piece of equipment makes many other defunct. It may even be that in the future the console is the integral part for controlling a house, including the lighting, temperature and other devices. With more reliable and faster internet connections, the technology of cloud computing has begun to gain some momentum. The Sims creator Will Wright embraces the idea of cloud gaming as a crucial part of the future of the industry. For one thing, the gaming industry sees it as an opportunity to make games as easy to access as music and movies.

Egypt and Mesopotamia Essay Example for Free

Egypt and Mesopotamia Essay Almost all things have its identified origin. The society that presently exists also has its beginnings that could be rooted from the ancient civilization. These civilizations became the foundation of the modern world that is presently observable. Two of the most notable ancient civilizations are that of Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Egyptian civilization progress in one of the largest arid desert areas in the world that is even larger than the whole Europe. This became possible due to the River Nile that crosses a nearly rainless desert from south to north that carries the waters of Lake Victoria as far as 3,000 miles of the Mediterranean Sea. In relation with Egypt’s strategic location, its organization is not simply attributed from the need of a collective effort to survive but rather they have developed into a progressive civilization through the sophisticated utilization of their natural resources. They were able to wisely use their resources in order to establish agricultural living through their invention of the irrigation system. Being the case, they were able to establish a strong livelihood through the trade of agricultural products that becomes the basis for their social development and culture. The Egyptian dominance was further enhanced by their creation of an independent writing system, construction projects as well as a military that defeated foreign invaders. Nevertheless, the decline of this civilization could be attributed to the faults of succeeding pharaohs who have abused their power and exploited their people. On the other hand, ancient Mesopotamia also known as the â€Å"land between two rivers† which is the alluvial plain of Tigris and Euphrates also has its own story on how it developed into a civilization. Similar to ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia also has abundant natural resources, which enable them to develop their agricultural sector. They also invented their own form of irrigation to aid them in planting agricultural products. However, they failed to develop their agricultural sector in order to establish trade with other lands. This is due to the varying climate that affects the steady supply of goods that would sustain trade like that of Egypt. Mesopotamia also has their form of writing and architectural skills. Nevertheless, they are more recognized in terms of their arts especially in the creation of pottery. Likewise, Mesopotamia also has the same form of government like Egypt. Their ruler is a king that has almost similar powers to a pharaoh and they also have their subordinates. Moreover, the greatest weakness of this civilization is that it greatly relied in slaving and exploiting common people in order to develop their civilization. Similar to Egypt, Mesopotamia’s failure to establish a kind of governance that gives importance to common people is its greatest weakness. The above discussions show that these ancient civilizations have their respective strengths and weaknesses. The factors that characterized ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia also became the basis for their comparison, which makes their similarities and differences observable. BIBLIOGRAPHY Kemp, Barry J. Ancient Egypt. New York: Routledge, 2006. Pollock, Susan. Mesopotamia. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Comparing Social Welfare Systems: UK and Germany

Comparing Social Welfare Systems: UK and Germany This paper will seek to compare the social welfare systems of England and Germany with regard to how they cater for the elderly. The paper will approach the issue by firstly discussing the theoretical underpinnings of the welfare state in both England and Germany. This initial theoretical analysis is important because it sets the foundation to understand the way in which social welfare policy in both countries approach care of the elderly. The paper will then provide a comparative analysis of the welfare issues affecting the elderly such as national insurance, elderly care, pension provisions, health care and other pertinent variables. This comparison will then seek to establish defining characteristics of each model towards elderly care. One of the most prolific scholarly expositions on welfare systems and their ideological frameworks come from Epsing-Anderson[1] who postulated that there are three distinct regimes of welfare systems. These he identified as Liberal, Corporatist and Social Democratic. Within this model, he located Germany as a Corporatist- Conservative regime and the United Kingdom as a Liberal welfare regime. Nevertheless, despite arguing how welfare states have developed and can be characterized under these three trajectories, Epsing-Anderson maintains that â€Å"the welfare state cannot be regarded as the sum total of social policies, it is more than a numerical cumulation of discrete programmes†.[2] With this in mind, the paper will now consider the theoretical underpinnings of Germany as a Corporatist-Conservative regime. Germany maintains a welfare system that is usually classified as the classical Bismarckian welfare state. This intimates that the welfare system in Germany is structured among class and occupational lines and subsequently a high degree of stratification, along the lines of market participation exists. The state, rather than the market, is the most important agency in the delivery of welfare and benefits are provided through a network of public, quasi public, private and voluntary organisations.[3] The German welfare state is characterized by a dominance of mandatory social insurance schemes such as health, unemployment, pensions, disability and long care. These schemes are predominantly contribution based benefits with the state partly contributing to public pension schemes, unemployment insurance and social assistance. Another feature of the German conservative welfare system is that it ascribes the male breadwinner model with significant corrections. It is steeped in the social policy dictates of Catholicism and this is demonstrated by a commitment to ‘the preservation of status differentials’[4] by emphasising self-help and to the preservation of a traditional family model. Women’s benefits are inextricably linked to their spouse, which in modern day society, places women at a disadvantage because they may have spent years caring for elderly relatives, or childrearing and widows pensions are inherently low.[5] However, the German welfare state has had to adapt to the new realties of modern society where more women are remaining single, divorce rates are higher and individuals have to work for much longer. The oft practiced early retirement feature of the German welfare state has also seen adjustments as families, especially women now need to reconcile salaried work commitments along with duties towards their loved ones in order to ensure a good standard of living in today’s market led economy.[6] These changes have had an effect on how elderly care is administered and ordered within the German welfare sate. Before the issue of care for the elderly with the German welfare state model is explored, the paper will now examine the characteristics of the UK welfare state. Converse to the German corporatist-conservative welfare state model, the United Kingdom is largely been historically characterized as an example of a liberal welfare model. However as Epsing-Anderson stated earlier, no one regime is a pure typology, instead they are usually a hybrid form albeit with an overarching ideology. Modern day societies demand that so called welfare regimes undergo pragmatic shifts to adjust to social, political and economic shifts. In light of these changes the UK welfare system is viewed as a liberal socialist welfare system. Firstly, the welfare system in the UK places a distinct emphasis on market-based social insurance and it uses of means-testing for the â€Å"fair† distribution of benefits. It regards as fair the distribution of more benefits to the poor or vulnerable who are viewed as more deserving. In this regard, welfare is oriented towards a class of the poor dependent or what is called the ‘residual welfare state’. The consequence of this is that, there is a low degree of de-commodification, meaning, benefits are limited and stigmatised by the general populace as the model assumes that high levels of benefit will reduce incentives to work. A high degree of stratification exists within the UK welfare state, wherein, the state plays an active role in social relations. One of the factors impacting the classification of the UK as a liberal social democratic welfare state regime is the existence of in-kind services such as free health care which is delivered through the National Health Service (NHS) and the prevalence of subsidised social housing to vulnerable groups, such as the elderly, single parents and the homeless. One of the most impacting changes within the liberal social democratic social welfare regime of the UK was pension reform in the 1980’s. These reforms saw the government cutting back on contributions that were earnings liked to retirement incomes and the heightened encouragement of private schemes as a necessary supplement. Many employers took advantage of the new low regulations on pension schemes and did not offer sufficient coverage adequate for a decent retirement standard of living and quality of life.[7] Subsequently, the UK government has not been able to negotiate adequate pension conditions with private employers on behalf of workers. All these changes within the liberal oriented UK welfare state model necessitates the discussion on how the elderly is affected. The aforementioned discussion on the typology of the welfare state in both Germany and the UK was necessary to this paper, as it sets the stage to understand how the elderly are treated within these two ideological frameworks. It also allows for an analysis on how modern day society has altered or shifted these ideological welfare state positions. To this end, the paper will now consider the comparative analysis with a focus on the various modes of care and policies towards the elderly in both Germany and the UK. One of the most important modes of care for the elderly is the provision of good health care. In societies where younger children have had to buy into active participation in a market based economy, the elderly becomes a particularly vulnerable group. Wegner explains this aptly when he states: â€Å"The absence of supportive health and social services contributes to several important problems: (1) the quality of care may fall short of adequate standards, resulting in instances neglect or abuse; (2) the strain of care giving places caregivers themselves at risk for many health problems; and (3) the heavy burden falling on a single caregiver eventually results in a greater reliance on institutional care than may be necessary.†[8] Germany’s historically conservative welfare state ideology, dictated that the family should be the main care-giver and support system for the elderly. However, with the elderly population living alone in Germany is the highest in the OECD and the European Union. Sensing that this tend would have been inevitable, Germany launched a long term care insurance scheme in 1994 which targeted the elderly. This scheme functions on a pay as you go basis and is strictly aimed at those in need of social assistance.[9] It is â€Å"financed through earmarked social insurance contributions and organized as a separate branch of social insurance†.[10] Some features of the scheme are: community based care, payment to caregivers and nursing homes, home modifications, personal assistance and general household assistance. In some instance, the elderly are also covered under the state’s accident and pension insurance schemes. Interestingly, Taylor-Gooby[11] notes that space was still made to retain conservative values with the introduction of the long-term care assistance as legislation such as cash reimbursement without any form of monitoring to encourage family supported care giving practices. In contrast, the elderly in the UK receive completely free health care under the statutory National Health Service which is free to all citizens post World War II. However, as previously discussed, the UK underwent serious cutbacks in pension provisions in the 1980’s and this has placed a significant number of retirement age pensioners at risk of poverty. Furthermore, the government also cut back in the number of public beds available for care in hospitals. This has in some ways encouraged caregiving from family members for the elderly, but like Germany, may younger family members have to reconcile paid employment with their desire to care for their loved ones. This has placed considerable strain on the NHS as the elderly suffer many injuries from largely having to care for themselves. The strain on the NHS reached such a crescendo that some doctors even recommended not treating the very old.[12] The NHS has come under great criticism for its treatment of the elderly,[13] cons equently the government, is trying to achieve the goals of its 10 year plan to reform care of the elderly in the UK which is documented in the National Service Framework for Older People. The inspection report â€Å"Living Well into Later Life†[14] recommended that the NHS needed to do more to encourage wellbeing and active ageing among the elderly. Specifically, while the NHS system is fraught with irregularities, vulnerable persons such as the elderly are increasingly being given more attention within the UK welfare state, with appeals for more state intervention, as opposed to the closed family oriented model of Germany. Housing is another important issue for the elderly. In Germany, the tradition of home care has affected the number of elderly persons who leave the home environment for care. Only 4% of the over 65 year old age group live in a nursing home or other forms of institutional care, despite the high number of elderly Germans living alone.[15] Much of these attitudes towards institutional care are grounded in German legislation as the constitution is based on the principle of â€Å"subsidiarity† whereby responsibility for welfare needs rests squarely with families, then local or federal authorities, that order.[16] The German long term care insurance â€Å"pays for personal care, medical help and social care†[17] in a nursing institution for the elderly only when familial help is no longer possible. It avoids paying for accommodation and subsistence costs and the total payment does not â€Å"exceed 75 percent of the total cost.†. Dallinger maintains that housing for the elderly in Germany is usually determined along social class lines.[18] She makes this assertion because the higher and middle class are usually financially able to employ paid care or help for their elderly family members and therefore institutional care is usually only sought by those who cannot afford such care. Nonetheless, Dallinger points out that the increase of German women entering the labour market has necessitated a greater demand on the need for the elderly to rely on the welfare state for care assistance, since younger women were the traditional caregivers. Housing for the elderly in the UK suffers similar challenges as younger family members do not have the time to care for their elderly relatives because of the gradual individualization of the society. This places the elderly at risk of social exclusion and being marginalized within modern day Britain. Consequently, the government has reduced the cost of housing council tax for the elderly and has provided them additionally benefits such as free transportation to encourage them to remain at home, while fostering active lives. Additionally, the â€Å"Living Well into Later Life† inspection report found a renewed push by the government to encourage older persons to stay in their own homes by providing them with paid personal caregivers. Furthermore an outreach group called â€Å"Supporting People† was actively advocating for the building of more sheltered housing facilities for the elderly.[19] However, it is appropriate to say that the issue of elderly housing in the UK r eceives more state intervention and welfare services than it does in Germany. This paper previously discussed how state cutbacks on pensions in the UK have placed the elderly in a particularly vulnerable retirement position. The UK now sees a pension scenario where those who are better off financially are able to buy into private pension schemes, and those who cannot afford have to rely on what is now a â€Å"diminishing† pension returns at retirement via the state. Furthermore, many individuals who were advised by pension salesmen, bought into private schemes yet saw their entire pension investments diminish in the mid to late 90’s when many private companies went bust because of being unregulated.[20] Taylor-Gooby asserts that in Germany, retirement income which traditionally came from public pensions, has seen a shift since a 2001 pension reform initiative in the state.[21] The German state has moved towards provision of a mixture of public-private pension scheme, along with great encouragement to citizens that public pensions will not suffice pre-retirement standard of living, thus plugging supplementary private schemes. Noting the failure of such schemes in the UK in the 90’s, Germany has sought to have stricter regulations on private pension providers. Furthermore, in line with its conservative ideology, women are given pension credits under the German welfare scheme for time taken off work for childrearing. It is therefore conclusive to say that while the UK and Germany have ideologically different perspectives on how their welfare state is structured, both countries have had to adapt to socio-economic changes within their societies and aim to provide better care for the elderly. The pressures of a rapidly aging population, the individualization of both societies has caused the elderly population to become increasingly isolated and at risk of being severely socially excluded and marginalized. Consequently social policies that inform traditional welfare states have become more pragmatic in their approaches while still trying to retain their ideological perspectives. Bibliography Alber, J. (1996) â€Å"The Debate about Long Term Care Reform in Germany†, in OECD (ed.) Caring for Frail Elderly People: Policies in Evolution. Social Policy Studies, No. 19, pp. 261-278. Dallinger, U. (2002) Elderly Care in the Family in Germany. Paper contributed to: COST 13A Meeting in Copenhagen, Friday 19. April 2002. Accessed on October 20, 2008 at: http://www.socsci.auc.dk/cost/gender/Workingpapers/UrsulaDallinger.pdf Donnelly, L., (September. 26, 2008) Don’t Treat the Old and Unhealthy says Doctors. The Telegraph. London. Accessed on October 21, 2008 at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1576704/Dont-treat-the-old-and-unhealthy,-say-doctors.html Esping-Andersen, G. (1994) ‘Welfare States and the Economy’, in N. J. Smelser and R. Swedberg (eds) The Handbook of Economic Sociology, pp. 711–32. New York: Princeton University Press Esping-Andersen, G. (1990) The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism. Oxford: Polity Press. Goode Committee (1994) Pensions Law Reform. Cm 2342-1, HMSO. Laurance, J. (March 27, 2006) The Great Betrayal: How the NHS Fails the Elderly. The Independent. London. Accessed on October 21, 2008 at: http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-wellbeing/health-news/the-great-betrayal-how-the-nhs-fails-the-elderly-471635.html Living Well into Later Life: A Review of Progress Against the National Service Framework for Older People. Audit Commission. Audit Commission. UK. Accessed on October 21, 2008 at: http://www.audit-commission.gov.uk/Products/NATIONAL-REPORT/4C4C40BE-6383-40E0-8B26-48D7FAF39A56/HCC_older%20PeopleREP.pdf Solsten, E. ed. (1995) Germany: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress. Accessed on October 19, 2008 at: http://countrystudies.us/germany/111.htm Taylor-Gooby, P. (2004) New Risks, New Welfare: The Transformation of the European Welfare State. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wegner, E. (2001) Restructuring Care for the Elderly in Germany. Current Sociology. Vol. 49(3) pp. 175-188 1 Footnotes [1] Epsing-Anderson, G. (1990) [2] Epsing-Anderson, G. (1994) pp. 711-32 [3] Solsten, E. (1995) Accessed at: http://countrystudies.us/germany/111.htm [4] Epsing-Anderson, G. (1990) [5] Solsten, E. (1995) Accessed at: http://countrystudies.us/germany/111.htm [6] Taylor-Gooby, P. (2004) p. 31 [7] Goode Committee (1994) [8] Wegner, Eldon. (2001) p.2 [9] Ibid. [10] Taylor-Gooby, P. (2004) p. 42 [11] Ibid., p.40 [12] Donelly, The Telegraph (Sept 26, 2008) Accessed at: http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1576704/Dont-treat-the-old-and-unhealthy,-say-doctors.html [13] Laurance, J. The Independent (March 27, 2006) Accessed at: http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/health-and-wellbeing/health-news/the-great-betrayal-how-the-nhs-fails-the-elderly-471635.html [14] Living Well Into Later Life. Accessed at: http://www.audit-commission.gov.uk/Products/NATIONAL-REPORT/4C4C40BE-6383-40E0-8B26-48D7FAF39A56/HCC_older%20PeopleREP.pdf [15] Dallinger, U. (2002) p.2 [16] Alber. J (1996) p.264 [17] Wegner, E. (2001) p. 180 [18] Dallinger, U. (2002) p. 3 [19] Living Well Into Later Life. Op. cit. p. 68 [20] Taylor-Gooby, P. (2004) p. 61 [21] Ibid. p.35 Social responsibility, maximising profits? Social responsibility, maximising profits? In his article The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits (1970), Milton Friedman, the Nobel laureate in economics, argued for what was summed up in the title of his article: the social responsibility of businesses is simply and solely to maximise profits! In the following, different arguments for and against Milton Friedmans statement will be presented and criticized. The inherent theories and principles will be presented as far as needed in order to discuss the extent to which this statement is true. Milton Freidman starts his famous article by describing the claim for a social responsibility of business by a pure and unadulterated socialism. For him, stating that business has a responsibility is looseness and lacks rigour. A company is only an artificial person and can not have responsibilities like an individual can. In this regard, only people in an organization, which means only the in ­dividual proprietors or the corporate executives, can have any social or moral responsibility. The managers of a company have a legal responsibility to manage the company in the best interests of the stockholders. As those shareholders first interest in investing their money in a business is to increase their wealth, then the managers sole responsibility is to maximize the profits for their shareholders. It is the legal and moral obligation of the managers to concentrate solely on serving their employers best interest, which means increasing profit. If the managers or the shareholders feel the need to fulfil any moral, social or ethical duties, they may very well devote some of their incomes or time to such activities. They are in doing so acting as a principal, not an agent. They are spending their own money and time, not those of the corporation they are working for and those of its shareholders. If an executive or a manager is fulfilling any social responsibility, this means that he will act in a way that is not in the primary interest of his employer, or worse, that is violating his duty of maximizing the profit. Any money or time that is spent by an executive in any kind of social action will not be spent to increase the shareholders wealth, to reduce prices or to increase wages. Therefore, this executive is spending someone elses money, the shareholders, the customers or the employees. Furthermore, in doing so, the manager is actually imposing a tax to the shareholders, the customers and the employees. He is also deciding on how those tax proceeds are to be spent. This is for Freidman a governmental function. In doing so, executives are, as per Freidman, simultaneously legislators, execu ­tives and, jurists. They become what Freidman calls public employees, civil servants even though they are employees of a private corporation. It is therefore the governments responsibility to impose taxes and determine the expenditures to be spent by any and all businesses in social activities. Freidman also recognizes that some businesses might act socially, contribute to chari ­ties or provide amenities. This can be described hyp ­ocritically by social responsibility or social actions. The real and hidden reason for businesses in doing so is to gain a long-term profit from such actions, like attracting desirable employees, reducing wage bill or tax proceeds. To summarize his thoughts and in his tribute to an ideal free-market, Freidman believes that no individual can coerce any other, all coopera ­tion is voluntary, all parties to such coopera ­tion benefit or they need not participate. There are no values, no social responsibilities in any sense other than the shared values and responsibilities of individuals. Society is a collection of individuals and of the various groups they voluntarily form. Some others do believe, all the same way, that the sole responsibility of a company is to compete to maximize profit. Adam Smith (As reported by The Economist, 2005) believes that benevolence is not necessary to advance the public interest. Rather, self-interest and profit-seeking is what brings humans to accomplish things, produce goods and services and thus benefit each others. It is false to think that profit-seeking fails to serve and advance the public interest, and that something else needs to be given back to the society to compensate for this profit-seeking. Keith Davis (1973) advances several arguments against the so called Corporate Social Responsibility. First of all, as per Freidman, the business function is an economic one, and the manager is the agent of the stockholders and has thus to maximize their profits. The second argument given by Davis is the costs of the social involvement. Indeed, many social goals do not have any economic outcome. Any business must spend with great caution its scarce resources, although sometimes very substantial, or it will sooner or later cause financial distress. Indeed, scarce resources will never self-renew, and must thus be spent in a way that guarantees at the minimum their recovery, if not gaining some premium. The author here cites some example metal foundries which could not meet the high costs of new pollution equipment and closed their doors. Another argument advanced by Davis is the lack of social skills of many businessmen. The author questions whether those businessmen, who are experts at generating profit, are well qualified to deal with social and public interests. Keith Davis also presents the argument of the dilution of the business primary purpose. A business involvement in social activities might dilute its primary focus on economic productivity, divide the interests of its leaders, and weaken business in the market place, with the results that it would accomplish poorly both its economic and its social roles. Furthermore, if a business spends resources in social programs, then these resources must be recovered, generally by increasing prices to the final consumer. In the same manner, if spending in social activities reduces the business productivity, this leads to higher production costs. If the business is operating in international markets with other firms that do not have to support such additional costs, the socially responsible ones will have a competitive disadvantage. Another argument is that the businesses that would support social activities will have additional social power. Davis states that business is one of the two or three most powerful institutions in society at the present time, giving extra social responsibilities to the business would result in an excessive concentration of power which will reduce the viability of our free society. In addition, Davis believes that although some people want businesses to be more responsible and socially involved, some dont. This lack of agreement among the public may result in a lack of broad support for the businesses and thus social frictions and disagreements. Finally, one of the most relevant arguments given by Keith Davis is probably the fact that businessmen are not accountable to people, but only to their stockholders. It should therefore be unwise to give them responsibility in areas where they are not accountable! This idea of non-accountability of businessmen and managers is also used by Michael C. Jensen (2002). Jensen criticizes the stakeholder theory as stated by Freeman (1984), Clarkson Principles (1999) and others because it contains no conceptual specification of how to make the tradeoffs among stakeholders that must be made. This makes the theory damaging to firms and to social welfare. According to Freedman, as stated by Jensen (p. 254), The à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ definition of stakeholder [is] any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of an organizations purpose. This includes shareholders, customers, employees, suppliers, but also the people who might be affected directly or indirectly by the companys business, through for example the damages to the environment, the layoffs, the corruption etc. Adopting the stakeholder theory brings businesses to be socially responsible. Jensen states that the managers who adopt this stakeholder theory will do what they want, spend the business money in social or other activities which are of no interest to the business or to the stakeholders, and will not be accountable for that. He thinks that the stakeholder theory must be inline with the long-term objective of value maximization. Only by keeping in mind that the value needs to be maximized that managers will find the good trade-offs between the different stakeholders. In a less extreme position than Freidman and the other authors cited above, Patrick Primeaux and John Stieber (1994), as well as Josie Fisher (2004) believe that social responsibility and long-term profit are not incompatible, and that being socially responsible could be converted into business opportunities. Orlitzky (2003), Russo and Fouts (1997) and Waddock and Graves (1997) (as cited by Husted and Salazar, 2006, p. 75) even found that corporate social performance has a positive impact on the firms financial performance! However, several different researches employed a variety of theories and methodologies to study the potential relationship between corporate social responsibility activities and other traditional measures of a firms success (Mahoney and Roberts, 2007). The results are confusing. Rim Makni, Claude Francoeur and Franà §ois Bellavance (2009) found in their study that socially responsible firms experience lower profits and reduced shareholder wealth, which in turn limits the socially responsible investments. Bryan W. Husted and Josà © de Jesus Salazar (2006) state on their side, that a business can not make maximum profit while investing in social responsibility activities. Rather, great overall social and financial output can be achieved only when businesses adopt a strategic approach, than an altruistic approach. Kant would have argued that even if the outcomes of such businesses actions might be beneficial to the society, the intention of those businesses is bad in the first place. As far as people are used as a means for those businesses to maximize their own profit, they are not ethical. All of the above are arguments that tend to support Freidmans theory, which in turn states that a business must concentrate on maximizing profit. The less extreme approaches suppose that it is possible to conciliate social activities and profit maximization, but the latter must remain the primary goal of any business. Keith Davis, in his call for a social responsibility of businesses, puts forward the arguments that acting socially would serve the long-run self-interest of the business, enhance the public image and the viability of the business, avoid any government regulation, serve the stockholders interest and prevent any future social problems, thus before all maximizing the long-term profit for the shareholders. The whole issue of ethics and business ethics is a complex one. Companies are made up of people. Multinationals are made up of many different nationalities. Several opponents to Freidmans theory do believe that businesses are part of society and as such they should reflect society norms. Companies, especially multinational ones, do have responsibilities in the world and have to be a positive influence. If a company is not ethical, then it will not survive as a company. Marjorie Kelly believes that maximizing profit and returns to shareholders isnt a legitimate mandate. Indeed, she argues that the shareholders are in effect not financing the public corporations. The money that a shareholder invests in a public company does not go to the company itself but rather to other speculators. Such investments go to the public corporation only when new common stock is sold, which is a rare event. Actually only the founders, entrepreneurs and initial investors are bearing the risk associated with a business. 99% of the money which is invested further on in those companies goes to the original investors and not to the company. So in effect, an established business is not getting any money from the shareholders, who are rather exchanging their stocks and gambling on several fields. They are thus not the legitimate owners or funders of the business which in turn does not have to care about their desires more than those of other stakeholders and the community in g eneral. Freidman, in his argumentation, states that only individuals in a business can have moral responsibility, but every business is made up of the decisions freely taken and approved collectively. The responsibility in such a decision process is thus not reduced to an individual, but rather it is a collective and shared responsibility among all the individuals who drive a business. As soon as the decisions are freely chosen and approved by the collection of individuals who run the business, they are all responsible for the outcomes of those decisions and are subject to moral evaluation. Furthermore, by seeking solely the profit maximization, some managers might allow or induce actions which may be illegal but are for sure immoral, like aggressive selling techniques or untrue publicity. They are, for this, acting in an immoral way and are responsible for that. Social responsibility refers to the obligations businesses have toward society. These are obligations that ought to be fulfilled; which indicates a normative use of the term (Josie Fisher, 2004). The author opposes to the classical economic view of Freidman and Levitt, the socioeconomic view that offers a broader account of social responsibility. Business has obligations that go beyond pursuing profits and include protecting and improving society. Boatright (2000), as cited by Fisher (2004, p.396), goes on to say that by implication businesses must be willing to forgo a certain measure of profit in order to achieve noneconomic ends. Backman, also cited by Fisher (2004, p396), identified some examples of corporate social responsibility: Employment of minority groups, reduction in pollution, greater participation in programs to improve the community, improved medical care, improved industrial health and safety. The social responsibility of a business is then to comply with the behaviours and norms that society expects business to follow. This focus on the socioeconomic view is a normative discourse, as it emphasizes how society believes business ought to behave. Several studies and researches have been conducted in the last decades on the business ethics and on how companies ought to behave. Those studies concentrate on three main subjects inherent to todays business: The globalization, the sustainability and the stakeholder theory presented earlier. Indeed, in recent times, multinational companies have grown rapidly and are yielding an excessive power. Those firms have also invaded multiple countries and cultures and are having an excessive economic and political power especially in smaller and poorer countries. They therefore are now responsible for their actions that might greatly impact such countries. Taking benefit of the poorness of local population to practice low wages or employ children is for sure a socially irresponsible action of those businesses. The second concept that has been studied in the recent ethics researches is sustainability. The sustainability is about the long-term effect of any business (or other) operation on any external factor like environment. As a matter of intergenerational equity, it is the businesses responsibility to consider the effects of their activities on the natural resources and the society and to repair any damages that can affect the future generations rights and equity. It is therefore the businesses responsibility to act sustainably. The third concept is the stakeholder theory, which has been presented earlier. The normative discourse of business ethics states that businesses ought to take into account the interests of all stakeholder groups. The different arguments presented so far range from those supporting Freidmans statement that any business social responsibility is to solely maximize the profits to the shareholders, those who support that a business can and has the duty to be socially responsible and try to advance the public good as far as this will have a beneficial impact on the long-run value and profits of the company, and finally those arguments supporting that any business ought to act socially, sustainably, invest in programmes that benefit the public interest, and be morally responsible for the outcomes of its operations. The supporters of this last view believe that businesses have to adapt their objectives, from solely financial, to a higher level which is all of the stakeholders, the public, the environment and the future generations interest. The latter arguments are therefore normative, and do provide a view about what business ought to be. This is the aim of the business ethics philosophy. From a more practical point of view, and considering how the companies are acting in todays world, it is true that many of them are advocates and practitioners of Corporate Social Responsibility. Many CEOs, especially in Europe, are convinced that basic capitalism fails to serve the public interest, and are promoting moral and socially responsible actions in their companies, like treating employees well, encouraging loyalty among customers and suppliers, avoiding any investment in unethical markets or countries that pay low wages and employ children, saving energy and recycling. However, no one doubts that this is not a standard yet. Social responsibility is not the norm today, and although some practitioners of Corporate Social Responsibility are getting some benefit, like a good public image, many of them are disadvantaged because of such social investments that some competitors do not support. Also, in the name of social responsibility, some multinational companies stopped their investments in poor countries where wages are very low. This is having a negative impact on those countries concerned that would have benefited from those investments. It is the aim of the business ethics discipline to study and propose what businesses ought to do and how they ought to behave. But I do think that it is the role of the governments to impose some basic moral principles and behaviours that must be respected by each and every business. Businessmen ought to behave morally but they will never all do so. A critical morality of moralities or a Metaethics has to be imposed by a higher institution governments- in order to guarantee the basis for equity. Conclusion In this work, different arguments for and against the 40-year old but still so famous statement of Milton Friedman that The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase its Profits have been presented and discussed. The normative discourse stating how business ought to behave is for sure morally and ethically against this statement and its arguments will sound both moral and logical for any mind. However, reality is far from the moral ideal. In my opinion, it is the governments responsibility to impose a minimum ethical code to be respected by businesses and individuals to guarantee the equity of rights and advance the public interest.

My Education and Career Goals :: Education/Vocation

My high school psychology course intrigued my desire to pursue psychology in college and the courses offered at State University furthermore solidified my interest to continue in this field. I took a particular interest in theories of personality and upon completing cognitive psychology, I wish to obtain a clinical neuropsychology certificate in conjunction with a doctor of psychology in clinical psychology. Throughout my work experience in a market research phone room center, I have encountered many personalities and had the ability to observe how their social contexts has shaped and affected each individual. I am interested in learning and obtaining a better understanding of how various social factors affect individuals. As a part of my undergraduate work, I conducted an independent research project examining trust and attachment style as possible factors that influence conflict resolution. Under the supervision of Dr. Maureen Erber, I collected data from students using various trust, attachment and confliction resolution scales and ran analyses via SPSS. In addition to my confidence about my preparation in psychology, I have earned a minor in Spanish procuring fluency in reading, writing, and speaking the language. Although Spanish is my first language, I learned English an early age that I felt further education in Spanish was valuable. My career goals are to obtain a PsyD in clinical psychology with a specialization in neuropsychology. I am interested in studying the relation between the brain, behavior and psychological processes. I ultimately would like to work in a hospital setting to evaluate and treat victims of stroke, head injury and other neuropsychological problems. I also intend to consult on pharmaceutical drug trials that might influence the central nervous system. I am interested in Adler School of Professional Psychology because it offers education and training in understanding the role of social environment in human functioning. I believe that becoming a socially responsible practitioner will help to develop the skills I need to successfully address various aspects, such as assessment and intervention, to fellow colleagues and patients.

Bank One and LaSalle Bank Comparison Essay -- essays research papers

Bank One   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1929, Commercial National and City National Bank of Commerce of Columbus, Ohio, merged to form City National Bank and Trust. City National offered the first Visa credit card outside of California in 1966; it also created the first drive-up bank, and was one of the first banks to use ATMs. A holding company called First Bank Group of Ohio was formed and it became Bank One in 1979. As interstate barriers to banking fell, the bank moved into Indiana, Kentucky, Michigan and Wisconsin. The First National Bank of Chicago and Bank One merged on October 2, 1998. The merger between Bank One Corporation and First Chicago NBD Corporation created what became known as Bank One, Chicago’s largest bank (one of the largest in the Midwest and nation). Bank One Corporation and its stock was traded under the New York Stock Exchange under the symbol One. This merger created the nation’s 5th largest Bank with assets of more than $240 billion. Bank One is a major corporate bank nationally and in selected international markets in 11 foreign countries, the nation’s largest credit card company which also is a leading retail bank in eight states, the leading business bank in the Midwest and Arizona, and the largest bank mutual fund company. With assets of more than $270 billion currently, Bank One Corporation is one of the nation’s largest financial services companies. Bank One currently serves more than 53 million credit card customers nationwide as well as 7 million companies in 14 states. It also manages more than $149 billion of assets for investors. The bank has 74,000 employees at 2000 branches in 14 states. On July 1, 2004 Bank One became a part of the new JP Morgan Chase. The mergers of the credit card companies, broker/dealer and lead banks will be completed over the next nine months. JP Morgan gives Bank One scale and size. However, the Bank One brand continues to be used in the marketplace.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Bank One provides several services to its customers, some of which include, retail services, Commercial Banking, Card Services, Investment management group. The retail service is broken down into, checking and savings accounts, consumer lending, Small business Banking, Debit/ATM Cards, Investment Accounts, Credit Cards, Insurance, Auto loans and leases, Online Banking and Home loans. The Investment Management Gr... ...processors of ATM transactions in the country. Clearly, consolidating in the sector is increasingly common. Bank One and J.P Morgan are together now able to rival Citigroup in retail, commercial, and investment management. This is a task that would have been impossible without a merger between the two organizations. J.P. Morgan (JPM stock ticker) has a â€Å"buy† rating on the stock by Standard & Poors, which one of the most reputable providers of independent financial research in the world. While LaSalle Bank and Bank One compete for Chicago area retail banking business, their overall business strategies are quite different and do not overlap considerably outside of basic retail banking. While the growth rate of J.P. Morgan is not expectedly lower due to the size of the organization and the industry as a whole, the growth is similar to that of the company’s key competitor, Citigroup. The future for J.P. Morgan is likely to be filled with additional mergers and acquisitions. It remains to be seen how the company will compete from an operational and service standpoint with Citigroup; however, it will be a protracted battle between the two stable behemoth financial services firms.